Punishment For My Bf Slave

machismo and homosexuality - and Chauvism omosexuality

And 'the man is still representative of his male role? The locals represent their masculinity differently than the immigrant? Discuss

Punishment For My Bf Slave

machismo and homosexuality - and Chauvism omosexuality

And 'the man is still representative of his male role? The locals represent their masculinity differently than the immigrant? Discuss

How To Skip Masterbathing

Effectiveness of innovations in nurse led chronic disease management for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: systematic review of evidence

Effectiveness of innovations in nurse led chronic disease management for Patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Systematic review of evidence

How To Skip Masterbathing

Effectiveness of innovations in nurse led chronic disease management for patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: systematic review of evidence

Effectiveness of innovations in nurse led chronic disease management for Patients with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease: Systematic review of evidence

Metal Naruto Kunai Cheep Uk

Project


The term project will identify two different meanings: the

range of activities that lead to achievement of a goal in a given time and with certain resources;
the document or set of documents describing the objective to be achieved and sometimes even requires actions to be taken to achieve it.
project, understood as a complex activity, then presents the following features:

there is a specific objective, unique and accessible;
achieve this is not the (significant) repetition of experiences already made;
can predetermine a duration (at least theoretically)
the project may be allocated resources (and in general constraints are also assigned for their use);
all the activities required to achieve the target is "sufficiently" complex;
you need a program that defines the length of time, the use of resources allocated to the project and the achievement of partial goals.

Metal Naruto Kunai Cheep Uk

Project


The term project will identify two different meanings: the

range of activities that lead to achievement of a goal in a given time and with certain resources;
the document or set of documents describing the objective to be achieved and sometimes even requires actions to be taken to achieve it.
project, understood as a complex activity, then presents the following features:

there is a specific objective, unique and accessible;
achieve this is not the (significant) repetition of experiences already made;
can predetermine a duration (at least theoretically)
the project may be allocated resources (and in general constraints are also assigned for their use);
all the activities required to achieve the target is "sufficiently" complex;
you need a program that defines the length of time, the use of resources allocated to the project and the achievement of partial goals.

Name On The House Deed 2010

Process Company
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

The business process (or business process) is a set of interrelated activities, performed within the company, creating value has been transformed resources (input to the process) into a product (job output) for a subject to internal or outside the company (customer). The process aims to achieve a business objective, which is determined in the planning if it is present. Both

resources because the product may be goods, services or information, or a combination thereof. The transformation of input and output can be performed with the use of human labor, machinery or both.

asset is a part of a process that does not include decisions and therefore is not useful to further decompose (although the breakdown is in itself possible). The activities, therefore, can substantiate in operations on physical objects or information or a decision taken by an actor involved in the process.

A sub-process is a part of the process that includes several activities and their attributes in terms of objectives, input and output, but while Contributors to the achievement of a more general process.

A project can be seen as a particular kind of business process, aimed at achieving a goal specific in a given time and with certain resources, which is not substantial repetition of the processes already undertaken.

In a process normally involved more bodies corporate and their contribution is coordinated through a flow of information (workflow). Coordination may be achieved in several ways:

formalizing procedures in the duties and responsibilities of governing bodies involved in the process;
giving the necessary authority to a special functional shape managerial (process manager);
combining in a single OU all institutions involved in the process. This implies the abandonment of the traditional criteria for grouping based on the input or output and, although advocated by the most recent literature on management, has not so far been very successful in the business world.
As we have seen, are considered to be all those who have used the output of a process, even though within the firm. From this point of view can be distinguished:

the primary processes, which have as clients persons outside the company;
support processes, which have as clients persons within the company and, therefore, support the primary processes.
Another classification process is threefold, based on the model of RN Anthony, including:

management processes (or strategic) that contribute to long-term planning of the organization;
business processes that contribute to the translation of the objectives of long-term planning in the short term, and monitor the achievement of objectives;
operational processes, contributing to the achievement of the objectives .
The management processes are typically characterized by unstructured decisions, taken in absence of predetermined rules to decide. Management processes are mostly semi-structured decisions, taken under the rules only partially predetermined. In business processes, and finally, the great majority of decisions are structured, that is taken on the basis of predetermined rules completely. The three types of processes are also carried out at different levels of corporate structure: the highest level executive jobs, mainly involving the senior management, those with intermediate levels of management, involving mainly the middle management and lower levels and operational.

Name On The House Deed 2010

Process Company
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

The business process (or business process) is a set of interrelated activities, performed within the company, creating value has been transformed resources (input to the process) into a product (job output) for a subject to internal or outside the company (customer). The process aims to achieve a business objective, which is determined in the planning if it is present. Both

resources because the product may be goods, services or information, or a combination thereof. The transformation of input and output can be performed with the use of human labor, machinery or both.

asset is a part of a process that does not include decisions and therefore is not useful to further decompose (although the breakdown is in itself possible). The activities, therefore, can substantiate in operations on physical objects or information or a decision taken by an actor involved in the process.

A sub-process is a part of the process that includes several activities and their attributes in terms of objectives, input and output, but while Contributors to the achievement of a more general process.

A project can be seen as a particular kind of business process, aimed at achieving a goal specific in a given time and with certain resources, which is not substantial repetition of the processes already undertaken.

In a process normally involved more bodies corporate and their contribution is coordinated through a flow of information (workflow). Coordination may be achieved in several ways:

formalizing procedures in the duties and responsibilities of governing bodies involved in the process;
giving the necessary authority to a special functional shape managerial (process manager);
combining in a single OU all institutions involved in the process. This implies the abandonment of the traditional criteria for grouping based on the input or output and, although advocated by the most recent literature on management, has not so far been very successful in the business world.
As we have seen, are considered to be all those who have used the output of a process, even though within the firm. From this point of view can be distinguished:

the primary processes, which have as clients persons outside the company;
support processes, which have as clients persons within the company and, therefore, support the primary processes.
Another classification process is threefold, based on the model of RN Anthony, including:

management processes (or strategic) that contribute to long-term planning of the organization;
business processes that contribute to the translation of the objectives of long-term planning in the short term, and monitor the achievement of objectives;
operational processes, contributing to the achievement of the objectives .
The management processes are typically characterized by unstructured decisions, taken in absence of predetermined rules to decide. Management processes are mostly semi-structured decisions, taken under the rules only partially predetermined. In business processes, and finally, the great majority of decisions are structured, that is taken on the basis of predetermined rules completely. The three types of processes are also carried out at different levels of corporate structure: the highest level executive jobs, mainly involving the senior management, those with intermediate levels of management, involving mainly the middle management and lower levels and operational.

Driver Dual Mode Camera Binoculars

Business Organization


in business administration the term organization has at least three meanings:
the process by which all persons who, through their work, are directly involved in the conduct of 's business company is organized along the principles of division of labor and coordination, so that collection takes a structure and becomes a system ;
the business function that performs this process;
the result of that process. In this sense the term organization can be considered synonymous with the company (the term "organization" is particularly used in the best companies of Anglo-Saxon literature, if you prefer the traditional Italian "Company").
Index

• 1 General
  2 Organizational Structure
  2.1 Division of Labor
  2.2 Grouping
  2.3 Hierarchy
  2.4 Coordination mechanisms
  2.5 Delegation and decentralization
  2.6 Outline macrostructure
  2.6.1 Macro elementary
  2.6.2 Macro multifunctional
  2.6.3 Macro multidivisional
  2.6.4 Macro-matrix
  3 systems (or mechanisms) operating
  4 leadership styles and corporate culture
  5 References
  
  
  General
  purpose of the study of His organization, the company can be considered a socio-technical system, which consists of people ( human resources that constitute the organization's staff), technology (instrumental means and know-how ).
  Depending on the opportunities provided by the external environment and taking into account the constraints from the same places, the company defines its objectives . Interaction between human resources and technologies derived corporate behavior, aimed at achieving the objectives, which produces results.
  corporate behavior is a function:
  of environmental variables, external to the organization and related to socio-economic, legal and cultural environment in which it operates;
  of context variables, intra-organizational system. These include:
  the human variables on the characteristics of the people working in the organizational system (skills, attitudes, motivation);
  social variables, which are sets of interpersonal relationships that are created within the organizational system, the
  technical variables, relating to technologies used;
  organizational variables, namely the ways in which you make the connections between the elements of the organizational system, defining specific attributes (the roles), regardless of who impersonate them. Variables are normally considered organizational:
  organizational structure;
  systems (or mechanisms) operating;
  leadership style or, more generally, the organizational culture.
  
  
  Organizational Structure The organizational structure is characterized by:
  the division of labor;
  by grouping;
  mechanisms for coordination;
  from decentralization.
  
  
  Division of Labor Division of labor takes the form: the breakdown of
  business processes into basic activities and grouping them into tasks according to some logical order or technical assignment
  tasks to positions, namely defined roles within the company, the tasks assigned to a position up his duties;
  awarding of one or more persons for each position, thus creating the governing bodies.
  Connected to the concept of division of labor is that of specialization, in the terminology introduced by H. Mintzberg, can be horizontal or vertical
  when you have highly specialized horizontal position are assigned a few tasks and / or activities consistent with each (more or less complex);
  high vertical specialization occurs when the position has little decision-making autonomy, taking that usually the complexity of assigned tasks tends to increase the autonomy.
  may well be: high-skilled positions
  horizontal and vertical (operative work), low-skilled positions
  horizontal and vertical specialization (the survey work);
  highly specialized positions horizontal and low vertical specialization (job training);
  low-skilled positions in horizontal and vertical (direct business). When
  decreased horizontal specialization it comes to enlargement of the tasks (job enlargement), and when, however, cuts the vertical specialization it comes to increasing job satisfaction (job enrichment). Conversely, rotation of tasks (job rotation) is the periodic variation of the tasks assigned to the individual operator.
  
  
  Grouping The grouping is the grouping of the organs, according to a specified formula, in which organizational units are generally responsible for a control (the head of the organization). Similarly, organizational units can be grouped into higher level units, the same company can be thought of as the group of the highest level, which is responsible for the overall direction (or DG). In practice, the organizational units in which a company is structured differently called the "directions", "divisions", "Departments", "Sections", "offices", "wards" and so on.
  The grouping criteria may be:
  based on the input of business processes , when organs are grouped (or units) in relation to the homogeneous function, ie the technical-economic activities (for example, a ' Company: Production, Marketing, Administration and Finance, Human Resources etc..), or in relation to the discipline (eg, in a hospital: General Medicine, Ophthalmology, ENT, etc..) or the technology used, according to the output of
  business processes, when bodies are grouped (or units) homogeneous with respect to product or market for the same, categories of customers or geographic location, may also be included in this category for the group project ;
  based business processes, when all organs are grouped (or units) in the process;
  on a numerical basis, when the organs are grouped into teams that perform the same tasks simultaneously;
  based on a time when the organs are grouped into rounds that perform the same activities in different periods .
  In general we can say that:
  the clustering criteria based on input focuses sull'ottimale use of resources (avoiding duplication, sub-optimization, etc..) and then on ' efficiency of the company, but it tends to distract from the final result of the processes - the products - and thus customer satisfaction, ie the' effective ;
  the clustering criteria by the output focuses on customer satisfaction (internal or external) and then the effectiveness of the company but it tends to distract dall'ottimale clerical resources (efficiency), the grouping criterion
  according to the process on paper, should combine the advantages of the previous ones in practice is rarely used for the application difficulties;
  the grouping criteria Time-based and numerical apply only at the operational level and not at the higher levels of the organization.
  
  Hierarchy
  At various levels of grouping are the levels of authority, control exerted by the body (above) the bodies of the immediately lower level (subordinate) which, in turn, can be operational agencies or bodies control of organizational units. This set of relationships of authority represents the hierarchy company. A hierarchical level are the organs of the same grade, placed along the chain of command, which does not depend hierarchically from each other. The number
  of persons that depend on a greater scope of control is called (span of control). In general, the control environment tends to be much wider as the superiors and their subordinates are capable and competent to control the activities are repetitive and simple. Conversely, the control environment tends to shrink in the presence of difficult tasks, new and complex.
  organizational structures can be divided into flat or high, depending on whether they have a lower or higher number of hierarchical levels. With the same number of employees, organizational units will have a flat structure larger than a high. Flat structures, in addition, the control area is tends to be more extensive than in tall structures.
  The structures flat fee will lower costs by having fewer management positions to remunerate; also the shortest distance between top management and operational agencies faster and more timely decision making and communication, avoiding distortions in interpretation. In contrast, tall structures allow better control of his superiors on the subject, in connection with a narrower scope of control.
  The introduction of information technology tends to favor the adoption of flatter structures, because it makes it easier and less expensive remote control but also self-control by the operator, which higher margins can be left to decision-making autonomy.
  
  Coordination mechanisms
  Coordination has, in a sense, a complementary role to the division of work, having as their purpose:
  harmonize decisions and activities of organs and organizational units, each other and with business objectives;
  ensure the fluidity of the business without interference or misalignment temporal
  eliminate the variability of behavior, if it is not desirable.
  Coordination is particularly necessary because the tasks are more complex - that is less structured and involve the exchange of information and exceptions - And interrelated, and how the organization is more complex and diverse.
  Coordination mechanisms suitable in case of less complex tasks are:
  appropriate design of work spaces (layout);
  mutual adaptation;
  standardization activities, through the formalization;
  the establishment of common objectives;
  direct supervision.
  In the presence of more complex tasks, can benefit the following coordination mechanisms:
  support the direct supervision;
  the creation of organizational units self-sufficient;
  strengthening relations horizontal
  the standardization of knowledge and skills. The mutual adaptation
  simply work through informal communication between the parties to coordinate that, so, retain control of their work. The
  consists in the formalization and communication of documents that establish binding rules on the division of labor and coordination and, in particular:
  what are the organs and their relations (organization);
  what they do (job descriptions);
  as must be carried out (procedures).
  organizations that use their formalization as the main mechanism for such coordination are bureaucracies. They also tend to use accentuated hierarchy and grouping by function. Are stable environments favored by a high and uncompetitive and product standardization.
  the direct supervision of works through the orders of superior bodies of the municipality to coordinate, who assumes responsibility and control of their work. This coordination mechanism is present in all organizations, in the presence of coordination mechanisms based on the establishment of common objectives or formalization, tends to act to deal with situations of exception, not required on the planning or standardization (management by exceptions)
  Support for the direct supervision can be achieved through: the
  information system that provides the controls for the information necessary to decide;
  the creation of bodies which flank the staff of the controls supporting them with advice and assistance, thanks to the expertise they have. In contrast to the relevant staff, and other controlling persons and their bodies are called line. The strengthening of horizontal
  report may be implemented by:
  the establishment of committees (or teams), bringing together more permanent bodies periodically;
  the creation of task forces, permanent or temporary, to bring together several agencies to address a specific problem; the
  creation of liaison positions, which have the task of fostering communication between organizational units;
  the creation of positions of integration, which have functional authority (ie limited to certain activities or issues, as opposed to hierarchical, which is generalized)
  all organs involved in a project (project manager),
  in a product (product manager),
  in a process (process manager).
  
  Delegation and decentralization
  Delegation is the transfer of decision-making powers and responsibilities of the relevant body which is initially (delegator) to another agency (delegate).
  An organizational structure is characterized by greater decentralization as more delegation:
  be a continuous and systematic (not occasional or casual);
  regards decisions on important issues,
  reached the lowest levels of the hierarchy.
  Decentralization has several advantages:
  prevents the organs at the top of the corporate hierarchy must dedicate their time and decisions often minor;
  promotes the timeliness of decisions, in response to stimuli from the external environment;
  allows greater consideration to the operational aspects and implementation of decisions;
  acts as a motivator of staff. Decentralisation can be
  :
  vertical, when the powers are transferred to a body line subordinate in the hierarchy, usually about decisions for the implementation of corporate objectives;
  horizontal, when the powers are transferred to a body of staff, normally regards decisions on working methods, which fall within the expertise of staff of the organ.
  Decentralization can also:
  selective when they are attributed to the decision-making body on matters relating to the function to which he belongs;
  parallel when they are assigned to the department which oversees output to decision makers (typically large) to manage .
  
  Schemes macrostructure
  The company's organizational structure can be studied at different levels of
  macrostructure, which covers the joint company in the intermediate directions (function, division etc.).
  of mesostructure, which concerns the internal structure of the intermediate directions;
  microstructure, which refers to ' internal structure of individual operating units.
  Particularly relevant is the macrostructure, which are found in relation to typical patterns. These diagrams show the configuration characteristics of the organizational variables, depending on how you split the work management and, in particular, the clustering criteria by which the intermediate directions are formed under the direct employed by senior management. Usually you can identify the following patterns of macrostructure:
  elementary
  multifunctional, multidivisional
  ;
  matrix.
  should also be warned that in practice are found not infrequently macrostructures hybrid than ideal schemes listed above.
  
  elementary macrostructure macrostructure
  The primary features:
  only two hierarchical levels of the line:
  senior management;
  operating units;
  bodies of staff limited or absent;
  decentralization limited or absent.
  E 'this pattern is typical of small organizations, especially small personally owned businesses owner-entrepreneur.
  
  
  The macrostructure macrostructure multipurpose multifunctional features:
  at least three levels of hierarchical line:
  senior management:
  directions feature, formed in accordance with a grouping based on the input;
  units operational, staff
  bodies usually present;
  selective decentralization to the operating direction.
  This scheme is undoubtedly the most popular one: it is found in many organizations of various sizes and fields of activity.
  structural limits of the macrostructure are multifunctional:
  the trend of slow internal communications;
  the difficulty to cope with environmental variability and technological
  a tendency to make the actors take on organizational sub-organizational goals (limited to their function) losing sight of the overall goal (only the top management is able to see the organization as a whole).
  Ideal conditions for the use of the macrostructure are multifunctional:
  widely tested and standardized products;
  low levels of technological innovation;
  reduced environmental variability.
  
  multidivisional
  The macrostructure macrostructure multidivisional is characterized by:
  least four levels of the hierarchical line:
  senior management (the so-called corporate level);
  direction of division, formed in accordance with a grouping based on the output (the so-called level businnes)
  directions feature, formed according to a criterion grouping based on the input;
  operating units.
  bodies of staff present at both the company's division;
  decentralization parallel to the direction of division. In multidivisional
  macrostructure divisions are usually divided into tasks (except very complex corporate structures, with more divisional levels) and therefore have an internal structure of multi-purpose type. It should be noted that the case Ideally, when the divisions have all the functions within them, is quite rare, usually to achieve economies of scale, certain functions are directly employed by senior management and provide their services to all divisions. A variant of the multidivisional macrostructure is the holding company, in which the divisions have an independent legal subjectivity .
  The scheme is usually adopted multidivisional by larger organizations, characterized by a high differentiation in terms of outputs (products, markets, etc...)
  structural advantage of multidivisional macrostructure are
  the possibility of identifying a single person responsible for a particular product, market or geographical area, ensuring that senior management should be to take responsibility for ensuring a unified vision;
  the ease of keeping and adaptive behaviors different for each targeted production company or territorial.
  structural limits of the macrostructure are multidivisional:
  multiplication of resources that perform the same functions and therefore costs;
  possible difficulties in communication between the divisions;
  a tendency to make the actors as an organization of organizations have no reference the whole company but their own division.
  Ideal conditions for the commitment of the multidivisional macrostructure are
  high heterogeneity of the products from the point of technological and / or production;
  high heterogeneity of the target market or customers for the same product.
  
  macrostructure macrostructure matrix
  The matrix is \u200b\u200ba variant of multi-functional features:
  at least three levels of hierarchical line:
  senior management;
  directions of running and at the same level, project or product manager;
  operating units, which depend so much in one direction function as a project or product manager, staff
  bodies usually present;
  selective decentralization to the operating direction, parallel to the project or product manager.
  This scheme is a broadcast rather limited and tends to be adopted by certain categories of organizations, such as companies that produce to order. Advantages of the macrostructure
  structural matrix are:
  the high flexibility of action and high adaptability to the environment and the market;
  the ability to ensure coordination of highly differentiated specialized functions and skills;
  's high capacity for innovation.
  structural limits of the macrostructure matrix are:
  the difficulty of standardizing the production output;
  stress caused by frequent changes of role and the difficulty in planning activities;
  the risk of conflict role and competence.
  Ideal conditions for the use of macro-structure matrix are:
  high environmental variability and market
  high levels of technological innovation;
  need to employ specialist skills and innovative;
  to there unifying professional values.
  
  systems (or mechanisms)
  operating systems (or mechanisms) operating systems can be defined as rules and principles of giving effect to the organizational structure, sending bodies to the business goals. In other words, operating systems make dynamic organizational structure, in itself static, different operating systems applied the same organizational structure result in different dynamics. In a sense, the relationship between operating systems and organizational structure is similar to that in information between software and hardware .
  The main enterprise operating systems are:
  system planning and control ;
  management system and development of human resources , which also includes the staff appraisal system and incentive system ;
  the information system.
  
  leadership style and corporate culture
  In a social group leadership is role, played by the leader, driving the other members (LEDs or followers) to achieve the purpose of the group. It distinguishes the informal leadership (or leadership in the strict sense), which draws its legitimacy from the consent of the other States, the formal leadership (also called headship), which operates instead on the basis of external legitimacy. Because the company and its organizational units are configured as social groups (namely secondary groups), the control elements responsible for them holding a formal leadership role. On the other hand, as in all social groups, alongside or even in opposition to the formal leader (the "head") informal leadership roles may emerge. When it comes to leadership skills of managers are referred to the need for combining the skills they know leadeship informal to formal leadership that comes from the position held.
  in the literature have been outlined various styles of leadership understood as patterns of behavior used to exercise a leadership role. The classification and note dates back more is that developed by Lewin (1949) distinguishes three styles: authoritarian
  , when the leader imposes its decisions to the group: organizes and directs the activities, gives orders, tend not to consult with members of the group and maintains a strong relational distance from them. The groups led by leaders authoritarian usually show different productivity, but that tends to collapse in the absence of the leader, also have an emotional climate usually unpleasant;
  democratic, when the leader asks the group to participate in decisions, tends to discuss with other members or even to delegate, shows confidence and encouragement in respect of followers, behaves like a member of the team like everyone else. The groups led by democratic leaders usually show a low initial productivity tends to grow, however, in addition the group also works in the absence of the leader and the emotional climate tends to be pleasant;
  laissez-faire (or laissez-faire), when the leader leaves that is the group to decide: tents not to intervene, leaving to other members and offering its assistance only when requested or necessary. The groups led by a laissez-faire leaders tend to have a very nice emotional climate but also low productivity.
  is generally considered that there is a leadership style best of all, on the contrary, there are styles more appropriate in particular circumstances. So in an emergency situation or conflict with other groups, they should show an authoritarian style, best suited to decide quickly. On the contrary, where it is necessary to address a complex problem but the time to decide are not stringent, a democratic style may be more appropriate, achieving the contribution of all group members in the decision.
  style of leadership is one aspect of corporate culture. This can be defined as the set of values \u200b\u200band meanings that are expressed outwardly through the language, norms and behavior patterns, slogans, narratives, rituals and symbols adopted by the members of the organization.
  
  References
  Brusa L. Inside the company. Organization and management. Giuffrè, 2004 H. Mintzberg
  The design of the organization. Il Mulino, 1996
  Retrieved from " http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizzazione_aziendale "

Driver Dual Mode Camera Binoculars

Business Organization


in business administration the term organization has at least three meanings:
the process by which all persons who, through their work, are directly involved in the conduct of 's business company is organized along the principles of division of labor and coordination, so that collection takes a structure and becomes a system ;
the business function that performs this process;
the result of that process. In this sense the term organization can be considered synonymous with the company (the term "organization" is particularly used in the best companies of Anglo-Saxon literature, if you prefer the traditional Italian "Company").
Index

• 1 General
  2 Organizational Structure
  2.1 Division of Labor
  2.2 Grouping
  2.3 Hierarchy
  2.4 Coordination mechanisms
  2.5 Delegation and decentralization
  2.6 Outline macrostructure
  2.6.1 Macro elementary
  2.6.2 Macro multifunctional
  2.6.3 Macro multidivisional
  2.6.4 Macro-matrix
  3 systems (or mechanisms) operating
  4 leadership styles and corporate culture
  5 References
  
  
  General
  purpose of the study of His organization, the company can be considered a socio-technical system, which consists of people ( human resources that constitute the organization's staff), technology (instrumental means and know-how ).
  Depending on the opportunities provided by the external environment and taking into account the constraints from the same places, the company defines its objectives . Interaction between human resources and technologies derived corporate behavior, aimed at achieving the objectives, which produces results.
  corporate behavior is a function:
  of environmental variables, external to the organization and related to socio-economic, legal and cultural environment in which it operates;
  of context variables, intra-organizational system. These include:
  the human variables on the characteristics of the people working in the organizational system (skills, attitudes, motivation);
  social variables, which are sets of interpersonal relationships that are created within the organizational system, the
  technical variables, relating to technologies used;
  organizational variables, namely the ways in which you make the connections between the elements of the organizational system, defining specific attributes (the roles), regardless of who impersonate them. Variables are normally considered organizational:
  organizational structure;
  systems (or mechanisms) operating;
  leadership style or, more generally, the organizational culture.
  
  
  Organizational Structure The organizational structure is characterized by:
  the division of labor;
  by grouping;
  mechanisms for coordination;
  from decentralization.
  
  
  Division of Labor Division of labor takes the form: the breakdown of
  business processes into basic activities and grouping them into tasks according to some logical order or technical assignment
  tasks to positions, namely defined roles within the company, the tasks assigned to a position up his duties;
  awarding of one or more persons for each position, thus creating the governing bodies.
  Connected to the concept of division of labor is that of specialization, in the terminology introduced by H. Mintzberg, can be horizontal or vertical
  when you have highly specialized horizontal position are assigned a few tasks and / or activities consistent with each (more or less complex);
  high vertical specialization occurs when the position has little decision-making autonomy, taking that usually the complexity of assigned tasks tends to increase the autonomy.
  may well be: high-skilled positions
  horizontal and vertical (operative work), low-skilled positions
  horizontal and vertical specialization (the survey work);
  highly specialized positions horizontal and low vertical specialization (job training);
  low-skilled positions in horizontal and vertical (direct business). When
  decreased horizontal specialization it comes to enlargement of the tasks (job enlargement), and when, however, cuts the vertical specialization it comes to increasing job satisfaction (job enrichment). Conversely, rotation of tasks (job rotation) is the periodic variation of the tasks assigned to the individual operator.
  
  
  Grouping The grouping is the grouping of the organs, according to a specified formula, in which organizational units are generally responsible for a control (the head of the organization). Similarly, organizational units can be grouped into higher level units, the same company can be thought of as the group of the highest level, which is responsible for the overall direction (or DG). In practice, the organizational units in which a company is structured differently called the "directions", "divisions", "Departments", "Sections", "offices", "wards" and so on.
  The grouping criteria may be:
  based on the input of business processes , when organs are grouped (or units) in relation to the homogeneous function, ie the technical-economic activities (for example, a ' Company: Production, Marketing, Administration and Finance, Human Resources etc..), or in relation to the discipline (eg, in a hospital: General Medicine, Ophthalmology, ENT, etc..) or the technology used, according to the output of
  business processes, when bodies are grouped (or units) homogeneous with respect to product or market for the same, categories of customers or geographic location, may also be included in this category for the group project ;
  based business processes, when all organs are grouped (or units) in the process;
  on a numerical basis, when the organs are grouped into teams that perform the same tasks simultaneously;
  based on a time when the organs are grouped into rounds that perform the same activities in different periods .
  In general we can say that:
  the clustering criteria based on input focuses sull'ottimale use of resources (avoiding duplication, sub-optimization, etc..) and then on ' efficiency of the company, but it tends to distract from the final result of the processes - the products - and thus customer satisfaction, ie the' effective ;
  the clustering criteria by the output focuses on customer satisfaction (internal or external) and then the effectiveness of the company but it tends to distract dall'ottimale clerical resources (efficiency), the grouping criterion
  according to the process on paper, should combine the advantages of the previous ones in practice is rarely used for the application difficulties;
  the grouping criteria Time-based and numerical apply only at the operational level and not at the higher levels of the organization.
  
  Hierarchy
  At various levels of grouping are the levels of authority, control exerted by the body (above) the bodies of the immediately lower level (subordinate) which, in turn, can be operational agencies or bodies control of organizational units. This set of relationships of authority represents the hierarchy company. A hierarchical level are the organs of the same grade, placed along the chain of command, which does not depend hierarchically from each other. The number
  of persons that depend on a greater scope of control is called (span of control). In general, the control environment tends to be much wider as the superiors and their subordinates are capable and competent to control the activities are repetitive and simple. Conversely, the control environment tends to shrink in the presence of difficult tasks, new and complex.
  organizational structures can be divided into flat or high, depending on whether they have a lower or higher number of hierarchical levels. With the same number of employees, organizational units will have a flat structure larger than a high. Flat structures, in addition, the control area is tends to be more extensive than in tall structures.
  The structures flat fee will lower costs by having fewer management positions to remunerate; also the shortest distance between top management and operational agencies faster and more timely decision making and communication, avoiding distortions in interpretation. In contrast, tall structures allow better control of his superiors on the subject, in connection with a narrower scope of control.
  The introduction of information technology tends to favor the adoption of flatter structures, because it makes it easier and less expensive remote control but also self-control by the operator, which higher margins can be left to decision-making autonomy.
  
  Coordination mechanisms
  Coordination has, in a sense, a complementary role to the division of work, having as their purpose:
  harmonize decisions and activities of organs and organizational units, each other and with business objectives;
  ensure the fluidity of the business without interference or misalignment temporal
  eliminate the variability of behavior, if it is not desirable.
  Coordination is particularly necessary because the tasks are more complex - that is less structured and involve the exchange of information and exceptions - And interrelated, and how the organization is more complex and diverse.
  Coordination mechanisms suitable in case of less complex tasks are:
  appropriate design of work spaces (layout);
  mutual adaptation;
  standardization activities, through the formalization;
  the establishment of common objectives;
  direct supervision.
  In the presence of more complex tasks, can benefit the following coordination mechanisms:
  support the direct supervision;
  the creation of organizational units self-sufficient;
  strengthening relations horizontal
  the standardization of knowledge and skills. The mutual adaptation
  simply work through informal communication between the parties to coordinate that, so, retain control of their work. The
  consists in the formalization and communication of documents that establish binding rules on the division of labor and coordination and, in particular:
  what are the organs and their relations (organization);
  what they do (job descriptions);
  as must be carried out (procedures).
  organizations that use their formalization as the main mechanism for such coordination are bureaucracies. They also tend to use accentuated hierarchy and grouping by function. Are stable environments favored by a high and uncompetitive and product standardization.
  the direct supervision of works through the orders of superior bodies of the municipality to coordinate, who assumes responsibility and control of their work. This coordination mechanism is present in all organizations, in the presence of coordination mechanisms based on the establishment of common objectives or formalization, tends to act to deal with situations of exception, not required on the planning or standardization (management by exceptions)
  Support for the direct supervision can be achieved through: the
  information system that provides the controls for the information necessary to decide;
  the creation of bodies which flank the staff of the controls supporting them with advice and assistance, thanks to the expertise they have. In contrast to the relevant staff, and other controlling persons and their bodies are called line. The strengthening of horizontal
  report may be implemented by:
  the establishment of committees (or teams), bringing together more permanent bodies periodically;
  the creation of task forces, permanent or temporary, to bring together several agencies to address a specific problem; the
  creation of liaison positions, which have the task of fostering communication between organizational units;
  the creation of positions of integration, which have functional authority (ie limited to certain activities or issues, as opposed to hierarchical, which is generalized)
  all organs involved in a project (project manager),
  in a product (product manager),
  in a process (process manager).
  
  Delegation and decentralization
  Delegation is the transfer of decision-making powers and responsibilities of the relevant body which is initially (delegator) to another agency (delegate).
  An organizational structure is characterized by greater decentralization as more delegation:
  be a continuous and systematic (not occasional or casual);
  regards decisions on important issues,
  reached the lowest levels of the hierarchy.
  Decentralization has several advantages:
  prevents the organs at the top of the corporate hierarchy must dedicate their time and decisions often minor;
  promotes the timeliness of decisions, in response to stimuli from the external environment;
  allows greater consideration to the operational aspects and implementation of decisions;
  acts as a motivator of staff. Decentralisation can be
  :
  vertical, when the powers are transferred to a body line subordinate in the hierarchy, usually about decisions for the implementation of corporate objectives;
  horizontal, when the powers are transferred to a body of staff, normally regards decisions on working methods, which fall within the expertise of staff of the organ.
  Decentralization can also:
  selective when they are attributed to the decision-making body on matters relating to the function to which he belongs;
  parallel when they are assigned to the department which oversees output to decision makers (typically large) to manage .
  
  Schemes macrostructure
  The company's organizational structure can be studied at different levels of
  macrostructure, which covers the joint company in the intermediate directions (function, division etc.).
  of mesostructure, which concerns the internal structure of the intermediate directions;
  microstructure, which refers to ' internal structure of individual operating units.
  Particularly relevant is the macrostructure, which are found in relation to typical patterns. These diagrams show the configuration characteristics of the organizational variables, depending on how you split the work management and, in particular, the clustering criteria by which the intermediate directions are formed under the direct employed by senior management. Usually you can identify the following patterns of macrostructure:
  elementary
  multifunctional, multidivisional
  ;
  matrix.
  should also be warned that in practice are found not infrequently macrostructures hybrid than ideal schemes listed above.
  
  elementary macrostructure macrostructure
  The primary features:
  only two hierarchical levels of the line:
  senior management;
  operating units;
  bodies of staff limited or absent;
  decentralization limited or absent.
  E 'this pattern is typical of small organizations, especially small personally owned businesses owner-entrepreneur.
  
  
  The macrostructure macrostructure multipurpose multifunctional features:
  at least three levels of hierarchical line:
  senior management:
  directions feature, formed in accordance with a grouping based on the input;
  units operational, staff
  bodies usually present;
  selective decentralization to the operating direction.
  This scheme is undoubtedly the most popular one: it is found in many organizations of various sizes and fields of activity.
  structural limits of the macrostructure are multifunctional:
  the trend of slow internal communications;
  the difficulty to cope with environmental variability and technological
  a tendency to make the actors take on organizational sub-organizational goals (limited to their function) losing sight of the overall goal (only the top management is able to see the organization as a whole).
  Ideal conditions for the use of the macrostructure are multifunctional:
  widely tested and standardized products;
  low levels of technological innovation;
  reduced environmental variability.
  
  multidivisional
  The macrostructure macrostructure multidivisional is characterized by:
  least four levels of the hierarchical line:
  senior management (the so-called corporate level);
  direction of division, formed in accordance with a grouping based on the output (the so-called level businnes)
  directions feature, formed according to a criterion grouping based on the input;
  operating units.
  bodies of staff present at both the company's division;
  decentralization parallel to the direction of division. In multidivisional
  macrostructure divisions are usually divided into tasks (except very complex corporate structures, with more divisional levels) and therefore have an internal structure of multi-purpose type. It should be noted that the case Ideally, when the divisions have all the functions within them, is quite rare, usually to achieve economies of scale, certain functions are directly employed by senior management and provide their services to all divisions. A variant of the multidivisional macrostructure is the holding company, in which the divisions have an independent legal subjectivity .
  The scheme is usually adopted multidivisional by larger organizations, characterized by a high differentiation in terms of outputs (products, markets, etc...)
  structural advantage of multidivisional macrostructure are
  the possibility of identifying a single person responsible for a particular product, market or geographical area, ensuring that senior management should be to take responsibility for ensuring a unified vision;
  the ease of keeping and adaptive behaviors different for each targeted production company or territorial.
  structural limits of the macrostructure are multidivisional:
  multiplication of resources that perform the same functions and therefore costs;
  possible difficulties in communication between the divisions;
  a tendency to make the actors as an organization of organizations have no reference the whole company but their own division.
  Ideal conditions for the commitment of the multidivisional macrostructure are
  high heterogeneity of the products from the point of technological and / or production;
  high heterogeneity of the target market or customers for the same product.
  
  macrostructure macrostructure matrix
  The matrix is \u200b\u200ba variant of multi-functional features:
  at least three levels of hierarchical line:
  senior management;
  directions of running and at the same level, project or product manager;
  operating units, which depend so much in one direction function as a project or product manager, staff
  bodies usually present;
  selective decentralization to the operating direction, parallel to the project or product manager.
  This scheme is a broadcast rather limited and tends to be adopted by certain categories of organizations, such as companies that produce to order. Advantages of the macrostructure
  structural matrix are:
  the high flexibility of action and high adaptability to the environment and the market;
  the ability to ensure coordination of highly differentiated specialized functions and skills;
  's high capacity for innovation.
  structural limits of the macrostructure matrix are:
  the difficulty of standardizing the production output;
  stress caused by frequent changes of role and the difficulty in planning activities;
  the risk of conflict role and competence.
  Ideal conditions for the use of macro-structure matrix are:
  high environmental variability and market
  high levels of technological innovation;
  need to employ specialist skills and innovative;
  to there unifying professional values.
  
  systems (or mechanisms)
  operating systems (or mechanisms) operating systems can be defined as rules and principles of giving effect to the organizational structure, sending bodies to the business goals. In other words, operating systems make dynamic organizational structure, in itself static, different operating systems applied the same organizational structure result in different dynamics. In a sense, the relationship between operating systems and organizational structure is similar to that in information between software and hardware .
  The main enterprise operating systems are:
  system planning and control ;
  management system and development of human resources , which also includes the staff appraisal system and incentive system ;
  the information system.
  
  leadership style and corporate culture
  In a social group leadership is role, played by the leader, driving the other members (LEDs or followers) to achieve the purpose of the group. It distinguishes the informal leadership (or leadership in the strict sense), which draws its legitimacy from the consent of the other States, the formal leadership (also called headship), which operates instead on the basis of external legitimacy. Because the company and its organizational units are configured as social groups (namely secondary groups), the control elements responsible for them holding a formal leadership role. On the other hand, as in all social groups, alongside or even in opposition to the formal leader (the "head") informal leadership roles may emerge. When it comes to leadership skills of managers are referred to the need for combining the skills they know leadeship informal to formal leadership that comes from the position held.
  in the literature have been outlined various styles of leadership understood as patterns of behavior used to exercise a leadership role. The classification and note dates back more is that developed by Lewin (1949) distinguishes three styles: authoritarian
  , when the leader imposes its decisions to the group: organizes and directs the activities, gives orders, tend not to consult with members of the group and maintains a strong relational distance from them. The groups led by leaders authoritarian usually show different productivity, but that tends to collapse in the absence of the leader, also have an emotional climate usually unpleasant;
  democratic, when the leader asks the group to participate in decisions, tends to discuss with other members or even to delegate, shows confidence and encouragement in respect of followers, behaves like a member of the team like everyone else. The groups led by democratic leaders usually show a low initial productivity tends to grow, however, in addition the group also works in the absence of the leader and the emotional climate tends to be pleasant;
  laissez-faire (or laissez-faire), when the leader leaves that is the group to decide: tents not to intervene, leaving to other members and offering its assistance only when requested or necessary. The groups led by a laissez-faire leaders tend to have a very nice emotional climate but also low productivity.
  is generally considered that there is a leadership style best of all, on the contrary, there are styles more appropriate in particular circumstances. So in an emergency situation or conflict with other groups, they should show an authoritarian style, best suited to decide quickly. On the contrary, where it is necessary to address a complex problem but the time to decide are not stringent, a democratic style may be more appropriate, achieving the contribution of all group members in the decision.
  style of leadership is one aspect of corporate culture. This can be defined as the set of values \u200b\u200band meanings that are expressed outwardly through the language, norms and behavior patterns, slogans, narratives, rituals and symbols adopted by the members of the organization.
  
  References
  Brusa L. Inside the company. Organization and management. Giuffrè, 2004 H. Mintzberg
  The design of the organization. Il Mulino, 1996
  Retrieved from " http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Organizzazione_aziendale "